How God Works: The Science Behind Spirituality

Throughout history, humans have searched for signs and symbols to help them navigate uncertainty. From ancient Chinese divination texts and Greek oracles to astrology, tarot cards, and modern occult practices, divination has appeared in nearly every culture on Earth. And while some might think of these practices as relics of a more superstitious age, divination turns out to be far more central to human history, and human nature, than most of us would ever guess.
On this episode, we explore the surprisingly rich history of divination and what it reveals about our enduring need for meaning, guidance, and answers in the face of uncertainty. We talk to historian Michelle Pfeffer about divination's deep roots in both religion and science, and to sociologist and tarot reader Melissa Lavin about why practices like tarot are resonating with so many people today.
Dr. Michelle Pfeffer is a historian of science and religion at the University of Oxford. She recently co-curated the exhibition Oracles, Omens and Answers at the Bodleian Libraries, and co-edited the accompanying book Divination, Oracles & Omens. 
Dr. Melissa Lavin is a sociologist at SUNY Oneonta and a tarot reader. She is the author of the forthcoming book Greater Secrets: Managing Fate Through the World of Tarot, available for purchase in February 2027.

According to a 2020 Pew Research Center survey, more American Jews cite having a sense of humor as important to their Jewish identity than things like keeping kosher and studying Torah. 

Humor has long been associated with Jewish identity—from Jerry Seinfeld to Mel Brooks, Adam Sandler to Joan Rivers.

On this episode of How God Works, we'll talk with the latest member of the long tradition of highly successful Jewish comedians, Emmy award-winning actor, writer and comedian, Robby Hoffman, about how Jewish people have shaped comedy, how comedy has shaped the Jewish people, and the role humor plays in her life and approach to faith. We’ll also ask if humor itself can be a spiritual practice—a way to cope with life’s difficulties and maybe even touch the transcendent. 

Robby Hoffman is a writer, actor and comedian. Her Netflix stand-up special Robby Hoffman: Wake Up debuted in December 2025. She recently appeared on the HBO series Rooster. She was also nominated for an Emmy in 2025 for her guest role on HBO’s Hacks. She is the host of the Too Far podcast on Patreon. Learn more about her work on her website where you can also find tickets to her tour.

Also mentioned on this episode:

Jennifer Caplan, learn more about her work and find links to her books on her website.

We’ve all done things we’re not proud of. But why do some people seem to struggle so much more than others when it comes to avoiding harmful behavior? And what does it mean for how we think about blame and accountability if the answer has something to do with our genes?

On this episode, we’re rethinking sin from the perspective of behavioral genetics. We’ll talk to psychologist Kathryn Paige Harden about the surprising ways ancient religious debates are still shaping modern science, what genetics can actually tell us about why we fall short, and what it all means for how we think about accountability and repair, both for ourselves and as a society.

Kathryn Paige Harden is a Professor of Psychology at the University of Texas at Austin, where she directs the Developmental Behavior Genetics lab and serves as Director of Clinical Training. She is the author of Original Sin: On the Genetics of Vice, the Problem of Blame, and the Future of Forgiveness, and The Genetic Lottery: Why DNA Matters for Social Equality. Learn more about her work on her website.

Also mentioned on this episode:

Elaine Pagels, author of Adam, Eve, and the Serpent

Robert Sapolsky, author of Behave: The Biology of Humans at Our Best and Worst and Determined: A Science of Life Without Free Will

Elizabeth Oldfield, author of Fully Alive: Tending to the Soul in Turbulent Times and former How God Works guest.

We’ve always assumed that if there IS a God, that God made us. But what if it ends up being the other way around… and we’re already further along than we think? Artificial intelligence is now offering moral advice, generating new forms of scripture, even simulating conversations with the divine. For some users, the line between useful tool and spiritual authority is already starting to blur. Why does it feel so natural for us to imagine there’s a ghost in the machine? And what happens when the people building AI start to talk and think about their creation in religious terms? 

On this episode, we’ll talk to journalist Sigal Samuel about where AI is showing up in religious spaces and how what it becomes will have major consequences for human agency and how we understand our place in the world. And we’ll talk to psychologist Paul Bloom about the quirks of human psychology that make us so prone to see minds, intention, and perhaps even the divine, in the machine. Along the way we’ll also ask: Can AI be morally formed? Could it ever have something like its own spiritual yearning? And if it could, what might it mean for us?

Sigal Samuel is a senior reporter at Vox, where she covers religion, ethics, and the future of consciousness and AI. Check out her writing in Vox’s Future Perfect column and follow her on X or Bluesky.

Paul Bloom is a professor of psychology at the University of Toronto and the author of several books, including Just Babies: The Origins of Good and Evil and Against Empathy. Learn more about his work at his website.

Also mentioned on this episode:

Stewart Elliott Guthrie, author of Faces in the Clouds: A New Theory of Religion

William Paley, author of Natural Theology (watch on a beach example)

Catholic priest and philosopher Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, and futurist Ray Kurzweil, who have both influenced the philosophical movement of transhumanism.

Uncertainty about faith can be anxiety provoking and even cause people to leave religion altogether. But that's not the way it works in all traditions. In fact, some are exactly the opposite.
In the second of a special two-part series exploring the promise and perils of doubt in faith, we talk with Rabbi Angela Buchdahl about how debate and questioning are central to the Jewish faith—both as methods for seeking truth and living a spiritual life. We also explore the guardrails that Jewish ritual and wisdom offer for channeling doubt productively to foster growth on a personal level and in the Jewish tradition itself. 
Rabbi Angela Buchdahl is the Senior Rabbi of Central Synagogue in New York City. She is the author of Heart of a Stranger: An Unlikely Rabbi's Story of Faith, Identity, and Belonging.