Strange Animals Podcast

Let’s learn about some of the oldest life ever discovered!

Further reading:

Microbiologists Find Living Microbes in 2-Billion-Year-Old Rock

Chart of life extended by nearly 1.5 billion years

Show transcript:

Back in episode 168 we talked about the longest-lived organisms known, and finished the episode by discussing endoliths. I’ll quote from that episode as a refresher.

An endolith isn’t a particular animal or even a group of related animals. An endolith is an organism that lives inside a rock or other rock-like substance, such as coral. Some are fungi, some lichens, some amoebas, some bacteria, and various other organisms, many of them single-celled and all of them very small if not microscopic. Some live in tiny cracks in a rock, some live in porous rocks that have space between grains of mineral, some bore into the rock. Many are considered extremophiles, living in rocks inside Antarctic permafrost, at the tops of the highest mountains, in the abyssal depths of the oceans, and at least two miles, or 3 km, below the earth’s surface.

Various endoliths eat different minerals, including potassium, sulfur, and iron. Some endoliths even eat other endoliths. We don’t know a whole lot about them, but studies of endoliths found in soil deep beneath the ocean’s floor suggest that they grow extremely slowly. Like, from one generation to the next could be as long as 10,000 years, with the oldest endoliths potentially being millions of years old—even as old as the sediment itself, which dates to 100 million years old.

That episode was almost five years ago, and in October of 2024 some new information was published. The study mentions the 100-million-year-old limit known so far, where living microorganisms were indeed discovered in geological layers below the ocean floor. But what they found was even older.

The scientific team analyzed rock samples from northeastern South Africa, specifically rock that formed when magma cooled below the surface of the earth. It’s called the Bushveld Igneous Complex and is very large, very old, and very stable.

The team drilled core samples of the rock from 50 feet down, or 15 meters, and cut it into thin slices to examine. To their surprise, they discovered microbial life in the rock’s cracks, which were sealed tightly with clay so that nothing should be able to get in or out of the rocks. To be sure the microbes hadn’t been introduced during the drilling or preparing process, they used infrared spectroscopy to compare the proteins in the microbes with the proteins caught in the clay. They matched, meaning the microbes had been there as long as the clay had been there, which was basically almost as long as the rocks had been in place. They were also able to verify that yes, the microbes were definitely alive.

So, how old are the rocks? TWO BILLION YEARS OLD. Billion with a B! While the individual microbes probably aren’t actually that old, the population of microbes has been living in those cracks far within the rock for two billion years. Scientists are excited to learn more about them, because by studying organisms that have been separated from all other life for that long, they can learn about how early life on earth evolved.

Even more exciting, at least if you’re me, NASA’s Perseverance rover on Mars is going to be bringing some rocks back to earth that are about 2 billion years old. Scientists are really excited to see if there is any evidence for microbial life inside the Martian rocks!

I know I won’t live long enough to see the first macrobial life from another planet, but I really hope I’m alive when we discover the first microbial life. I don’t think life is rare on other planets, it’s just that the distances are so enormous that getting to another planet and sending information back home is an almost insurmountable problem right now. The closest planets to us are Mars and Venus, and these days Mars just doesn’t seem like it would be very habitable for anything but microbes. But microbes can live just about anywhere!

Also in 2024, a team from Virginia Tech has put together a chart marking when various life forms started appearing in the fossil record and when they also stopped appearing in the fossil record. Versions of this chart of life have been made before, but they typically only go back to about half a billion years ago, around the time of the Cambrian. Before that, life was much less likely to fossilize, or the rocks containing the fossils have been worn away.

The team gathered fossil data from scientists and institutions around the world and compiled it into a chart of life that extends back two billion years. The farther back you look, the less changes there are among the type and differences in species. There’s even a huge stretch of time called the boring billion where things really weren’t changing much at all, at least not according to the fossil record we have available. It wasn’t until the earth’s climate became much cooler and then warmed again, between 720 and 635 million years ago, that things really began to change.

The team is considering factors that contributed to the stability of the boring billion, and why it all changed so radically. It’s a good thing it did from our perspective, since if the boring billion had continued over the next billion years until today, we’d all be single-celled organisms. I wonder if the microbes in those two billion year old rocks even noticed the changes. Probably not. They were in rocks.

Thanks for your support, and thanks for listening!

Further reading:

Beavers Have Metal Teeth

Show transcript:

Welcome to Strange Animals Podcast. I’m your host, Kate Shaw.

Let’s find out about some animals that incorporate metal into their bodies in more than just trace amounts.

We’ll start with the scaly-foot gastropod, a deep-sea snail. It lives around hydrothermal vents in the Indian Ocean, about 1 and ¾ miles below the surface, or about 2800 meters. The water around these vents, referred to as black smokers, can be more than 350 degrees Celsius. That’s 660 degrees F, if you even need to know that that’s too hot to live.

The scaly-foot gastropod was discovered in 2001 but not formally described until 2015. The color of its shell varies from almost black to golden, depending on which population it’s from, and it grows to almost 2 inches long, or nearly 5 cm. It doesn’t have eyes, and while it does have a small mouth, it doesn’t use it for eating. Instead, the snail contains symbiotic bacteria in a gland in its esophagus. The bacteria convert toxic hydrogen sulfide from the water around the hydrothermal vents into energy the snail uses to live. It’s a process called chemosynthesis.

In return, the bacteria get a safe place to live.

The snail’s shell contains an outer layer made of iron sulfides. Not only that, the bottom of the snail’s foot is covered with sclerites, or spiky scales, that are also mineralized with iron sulfides. While the snail can’t pull itself entirely into its shell, if something attacks it, the bottom of its foot is heavily armored and its shell is similarly tough.

Researchers are studying the scaly-foot gastropod’s shell to possibly make a similar composite material for protective gear and other items. The inner layer of the shell is made of a type of calcium carbonate, common in mollusk shells and some corals. The middle layer of the shell is regular snail shell material, organic periostracum, which helps dissipate heat as well as pressure from squeezing attacks, like from crab claws. And the outer layer, of course, is iron sulfides like pyrite and greigite. Oh, and since greigite is magnetic, the snails stick to magnets.

The scaly-foot gastropod is the only animal known that incorporates iron sulfide into its skeleton, but other animals use metals in their teeth. Some spiders have tiny amounts of zinc in the tips of their fangs. Some mollusks have small amounts of iron in the teeth of their radulas—you know, the tongue-like structure used to scrape food off rocks. The teeth of the limpet, a type of mollusk, may be one of the strongest structures in the world. It contains goethite nanofibers, and goethite is a type of iron.

The teeth of beavers and some other rodents contain iron in the enamel coating. This makes the teeth much harder, although the amount of iron is quite small and unstructured. Most other mammals, including humans, have magnesium in tooth enamel instead of iron. The iron content makes the teeth look orange because of rust.

Bloodworms are disgusting horrible worms that my uncle used to fish with when we visited the beach when I was a kid. I was scared of the bloodworms, which irritated my uncle, because I was very vocal about hating the worms and he wasn’t catching any fish with them. Bloodworms live in the sand or silt of shallow water, usually in the ocean but since they can tolerate low salt levels, they may also live farther inland in canals and inlets. Some species can grow nearly 15 inches long, or 37 cm. They’re usually pink or reddish in color with bristles along the body and four little antennae on the head. But the reason I’m talking about them here is that their teeth are reinforced with copper that makes them nearly as hard as teeth coated with enamel. Its jaw also contains copper ions.

Copper is toxic to most animals, which may be the source of the bloodworm’s venom. That’s right: horrible worms are also venomous.

Another invertebrate that incorporates metal in its body is the parasitic fig wasp. Fig wasps are interesting and there are a lot of them. Figs are pollinated by fig wasps that are not parasitic. The fig flower has a bulb at its base containing a tiny hole. The pollinating fig wasp crawls into the hole, pollinating the flower at the same time, and lays her eggs inside the bulb. She then dies. As the fig developes, the wasp eggs hatch into larvae and then develop into adult wasps. Males mate with females, then chew a hole out of the fig, but only the female wasps have wings, so the males remain and die. As the fig ripens, it actually digests the dead wasps, and—and this is important to those of us who really like figs—leaves no bits of dead wasp inside the fig. So that’s how the pollinating fig wasps work. It’s a symbiotic relationship between the fig tree and the wasp.

But the parasitic fig wasp is different. The female has a long ovipositor, which it uses to drill into developing figs and into the pollinating fig wasp larvae. When its eggs hatch, they eat the larva alive. This is yet another reminder that nature is disgusting! But the really interesting thing is that at least one parasitic fig wasp species, Apocrypta westwoodi, has an ovipositor that resembles a drill bit, and it’s hardened with zinc. The ovipositor is basically a syringe with a drill bit, but since it’s so strong while being much thinner than a human hair, researchers are studying its structure to help develop minimally invasive medical syringes.

One interesting note. You’d think that iron and other metals would be more common in animal bodies as armor. Animals use some metals for various purposes as it is, like the iron containing hemoglobin in our blood. But incorporating iron and other metals into the body has a high metabolic cost and frequently biological materials are stronger than metal in the ways that count. Plus, they don’t rust.

Thanks for your support, and thanks for listening!

Is there life on Europa? We take a look at Greenland and Antarctica to find out more about life on Jupiter’s icy moon.

Further reading:

Life on Venus claim faces strongest challenge yet

Stanford researchers’ explanation for formation of abundant features on Europa bodes well for search for extraterrestrial life 

Show transcript:

Welcome to Strange Animals Podcast. I’m your host, Kate Shaw.

Today we’re going to learn about the potential of life on Europa, a moon of Jupiter! To do that we’ll need to look at some extreme life on Earth too.

Back in September 2020, we talked about potential signs of life in the atmosphere of Venus, which excited me a whole lot. As a follow-up to that episode, further studies suggest that signs of phosphine detected in Venus’s atmosphere, which might be produced by life, may actually just be sulfur dioxide (not a sign of life). But while it’s not looking likely that phosphine is actually found in Venus’s atmosphere, so far no studies can completely rule it out. So, maybe.

Venus isn’t the only part of our solar system where life might exist outside of Earth, though. Astronomers have been speculating about Europa for a long time. The planet Jupiter is a gas giant that has at least 80 moons, but Europa is the one that’s closest to the planet. It’s only a little bit smaller than our own moon.

Europa has an atmosphere, mostly made up of oxygen but so thin that if you could magically appear on the moon, you wouldn’t be able to breathe. Also, you would freeze to death almost immediately. It’s a dense moon, so astronomers think it’s probably mostly made up of silicate rock, which is what Earth is mostly made up of, along with Mars, Venus, Mercury, and a lot of moons.

If you’ve ever looked at our moon through a telescope or binoculars, you know it has lots of impact craters on its surface caused by asteroid strikes in the past. Europa doesn’t have very many craters—in fact, its surface is incredibly smooth except for what look like cracks all over it. It’s mostly pale in color, but the cracks are reddish-orange or brown.

The cause of the cracks has been a mystery ever since astronomers got the first good look at Europa. Many astronomers think these cracks are where warm material from below the surface erupted through the crust, sort of like what happens where lava oozes up on Earth and forms oceanic ridges. But on Europa, the material breaking through the crust isn’t lava, it’s ice—but ice that isn’t as cold as the surface ice. You know you’re on a cold, cold moon when ice that’s close to freezing instead of way below freezing can act like lava. The surface of Europa is about 110 kelvin at the equator and even colder at the poles. That’s -260 F or -160 C.

The exciting thing is that researchers are pretty sure the surface of Europa is icy but that the crust lies over a deep saltwater ocean that covers the entire moon. Yes, an ocean! As Europa orbits Jupiter, the planet’s gravity pulls at the moon, while the smaller gravity fields of the other nearest moons also pull on Europa in other directions. This push and pull causes tides that help warm the ocean and keep it from freezing solid. The brown coloration in the moon’s cracks may be due to mineral salts from the water that get leached up through the cracks after warm ice breaks through, assuming that’s what is actually happening to cause the cracks. Astronomers even have images of Europa taken by space probes that show what look like water plumes erupting through the surface and shooting up an estimated 120 miles high, or 200 km.

But new studies suggest that the water plumes might not be from the ocean. They might be from pockets of water that form within the crust itself, which grow larger until they burst out through the crust. This is even more exciting when it comes to potential life on the moon, because it suggests that the crust isn’t just a big block of ice. It’s a dynamic system that might harbor life instead of all potential life on Europa being restricted to the ocean. But to learn more about Europa, we have to come back to Earth and examine the island of Greenland.

Most of Greenland is covered with a permanent ice sheet like the ones found in Antarctica, but it’s a lot easier to study than Antarctica. One feature seen in the ice sheet is something called a double ridge, shaped sort of like a capital letter M. It’s caused when the ice fractures around pressurized water that forms inside the ice sheet and refreezes. This is caused when water from streams and lakes on the surface finds its way into the ice. The double ridge can look like a crack. New pictures of the cracks on Europa’s surface look just like Greenland’s double ridges, but much bigger.

My explanation of all this is extremely clumsy, because this is a really complex mechanism. Researchers only figured it out because some of the team had been studying Greenland’s double ridges for a completely different project, and noticed the similarities. There’s a link in the show notes to an article about this phenomenon if you want to learn more.

The Greenland ice sheet is over a mile thick. In 1966, the U.S. Army drilled into the ice to see what was under it, and the answer is dirt, as you might have expected. They took a 15-foot, or 4.5 meter, core sample and stuck it in a freezer, where everyone promptly forgot about it for 51 years. At some point it ended up in Denmark, where someone noticed it in 2017.

In 2019, the frozen core sample was finally studied by scientists. They expected to find mostly sand and rock. Instead, it was full of beautifully fossilized leaves and other plant material.

The main reason scientists were so surprised to find leaves and soil instead of just rock is that ice is really heavy, and it moves—slowly, but a mile-thick sheet of ice cannot be stopped. If you listened to the recent episode in the main feed about the rewilding of Scotland, you may remember that Scotland doesn’t have a lot of fossils from the Pleistocene because it was covered in glaciers that scoured the soil and everything in it down to bedrock, destroying everything in its path. But this hasn’t happened in Greenland, even though the sample was taken from an area only about 800 miles, or 1,290 km, from the North Pole.

Where the ice sheet now is, there used to be a forest. Obviously, the ice sheet hasn’t always covered Greenland. Research is ongoing, but a study of the sediment published in 2021 indicates that Greenland was ice free within the last million years, and possibly as recently as a few hundred thousand years.

All this is interesting, but it’s very different from Europa, whose ice sheets have probably been in place almost from the moon’s formation. What kind of life can live on, in, or under ice sheets?

On Earth, at least, a lot of organisms live on glaciers. Most are tiny or microscopic, including a type of algae that grows on top of ice, bacteria that live pretty much everywhere, including inside ice crystals, and microbes of various kinds. But there are some larger organisms, including glacial copepods, snow fleas, glacial midges, and the ice worms we talked about in episode 185 that live on glaciers in the Pacific Northwest.

Most likely, life on Europa will be tiny too. Researchers hypothesize that there could be microbial life living deep within the ice or in the pockets of melted water that develop inside it. There might be microbial mats or algae-type organisms that live on the underside of the ice, anchored there but able to extract nutrients from the ocean water.

But obviously, Europa’s ocean is where most life will probably be found, assuming it’s there. While there’s no environment quite like Europa’s to be found on Earth, since Earth is so close to the sun and nice and warm in comparison, parts of the deep sea are somewhat similar. Lots of animals live around hydrothermal vents, where volcanic activity breaks through the ocean floor and superheats water in small areas. Invertebrates of all kinds have adapted to live between boiling hot water and frigid deep-sea water, where absolutely no sunlight has ever reached. Animals like giant tube worms can grow nearly 10 feet long, or 3 meters, and don’t actually eat anything. Instead, they have symbiotic bacteria that provide them with all the nutrients they need while in turn, the bacteria get a safe place to live.

When the intensely heated, mineral-rich water of a hydrothermal vent comes in contact with cold water, it causes all sorts of chemical reactions. That’s what fuels most of the life around the vents. There are even some fish that live around hydrothermal vents, including the cutthroat eel that can grow over 5 feet long, or 1.6 meters. They’re bottom-dwelling deep-sea eels that live worldwide, but they spend time around hydrothermal vents to eat some of the other animals that live there exclusively. There’s even a type of bacteria found at one vent off the coast of Mexico that uses the faint light emitted by lava deep within the vent for photosynthesis. All other known photosynthesizing organisms use the sun as a light source.

Scientists think that Europa has hydrothermal vents similar to the ones on Earth. Since at least some researchers think life on Earth got its start around hydrothermal vents, it wouldn’t be surprising if life forms also live around Europa’s vents. But that doesn’t mean that life could only live around the vents.

In 2018, a team of scientists in Antarctica bored through the ice sheet and took a sample from the sea floor far below the ice to see if anything lived there. Since this was in the middle of the ice sheet with absolutely no sunlight or open ocean within a million square kilometers, they didn’t expect to find much. When they gave the sample to marine biologist David Barnes to examine, and he got a first look at it, initially he actually thought they’d pulled a practical joke on him. There was no way this one small sample could contain evidence of so much life in such an extreme environment.

He counted 77 different species of organism in the sample. There were worms, bryozoans, sponges, even fragments of jellyfish, and of course there were lots and lots of microorganisms. All the animals were small, which isn’t surprising. That they were there at all was the truly surprising thing.

We don’t know yet if life exists anywhere outside of Earth. Odds are good that it does, just because there are so many planets and moons around so many stars throughout our galaxy and all the other galaxies in the universe. Whether we’ll ever find it is another thing. Until we do, though, we will just have to appreciate all the amazing diversity of life on our own planet, and keep watching the night skies and wondering.

Thanks for your support, and thanks for listening!

It’s Albert the Albanerpetontid!

Further reading:

Earliest example of a rapid-fire tongue found in ‘weird and wonderful’ extinct amphibians

Amphibian skullllll:

Show transcript:

Welcome to Strange Animals Podcast. I’m your host, Kate Shaw.

Let’s learn about a long-extinct amphibian that looked a lot like a reptile. It’s a family of animals called Albanerpetontidae. That’s a mouthful, so instead of talking about Albanerpetontids, I’ll talk about all the various species as though they were not only a single species, but a single individual named Albert.

Albert first appears in the middle Jurassic, around 165 million years ago, and disappears from the fossil record around 2 million years ago. That means it survived the extinction event that killed off the non-avian dinosaurs and many other animals, which is also true for many other amphibians. But Albert wasn’t like the amphibians we have around today. It belonged to its own order, Allocaudata.

There’s a lot of confusion in general as to how amphibians are related to each other and how closely related, for instance, the frogs and the salamanders actually are. The same is true for Albert. What we do know is that Albert was definitely an amphibian, but it was also really different in many respects from modern amphibians.

That’s weird, because only two million years ago Albert was still around and seems to have been fairly common. Albert fossils have been found in Europe, North America, northern Africa, and parts of Asia. Two million years isn’t all that long when you’re talking about big differences between related animal groups. But although Albert appears in the fossil record at about the same time as other amphibians, it seems to have evolved very differently in many ways.

Albert looked like a salamander and was originally classified as a salamander. It was small, its body was slender and elongated, its legs were short, and it had a long tail. It had tiny teeth and seemed to prefer wet environments, which makes sense when you’re talking about an amphibian. But Albert had a lot of traits not found in other amphibians, such as scales. The scales were more fish-like than reptilian and were embedded in Albert’s skin like osteoderms, especially concentrated on the head.

These scales have caused confusion for a whole lot of scientists. In 2016, for instance, scientists identified an unusual lizard found fossilized in amber as a 99-million-year-old chameleon. That’s because it had a weird bone in its jaw shaped like a little rod, which looked like a bone found in the modern chameleon’s tongue.

It turns out that the lizard was no lizard at all but our friend Albert, an amphibian. The chameleon is a reptile and not related to Albert, but they share the same type of elongated tongue bone. When the skull of a second amber specimen was discovered that was even better preserved, including a tongue pad and other soft tissue, scientists were able to evaluate whether Albert used its tongue the same way that a chameleon does.

One trait found in Albert skulls that scientists had long been confused about was how robust and large its skull was. Some scientists suggested that it used its big head to dig burrows, ramming its head into soft mud until it created a hole big enough to hide in. But it also had big eyes, which isn’t typical in an animal that burrows.

Scientists now think that Albert’s head was so strong because it needed to withstand the forces of its own tongue. It could probably shoot its tongue out incredibly fast like a chameleon, much faster even than a frog. It’s referred to as a projectile tongue, ballistic tongue, rapid-fire tongue, or boomerang tongue. The muscles that power a chameleon’s tongue are specialized to store energy when it contracts, then launch the tongue out like someone releasing a stretched-out rubber band. Albert’s similar ability evolved separately from the chameleon’s, and much earlier.

It’s also possible that Albert didn’t undergo a larval stage the way most other amphibians do. Juvenile specimens look like miniature adults, which is unusual in amphibians but ordinary in reptiles. Albert also had lizard-like claws. But we know Albert wasn’t a reptile, and in fact it may have demonstrated one of the most amphibian traits known, breathing through its skin. Many modern salamanders don’t have lungs or gills at all as adults, and instead absorb oxygen directly through the skin, called cutaneous respiration. The specialized bone in Albert’s jaw would have made it hard to breathe in the ordinary way, and we know it didn’t have gills.

The big question is why Albert went extinct when other amphibians are doing just fine. We don’t have an answer for that, or not yet. While Albert did seem to be quite successful, fossils of tiny, delicate animals like two-centimeter-long amphibians are rare, and that means we don’t have the full picture of what happened two million years ago that drove Albert to extinction.

For that matter, some scientists wonder if Albert might not actually be extinct. It might be alive and well in remote rain forests, spending most of its time hidden in damp leaf litter and using its mighty tongue to catch tiny insects. Maybe one day a scientist will turn over a log and make the find of a lifetime.

Thanks for your support, and thanks for listening!

Further reading:

Identifying the beasts in Caesar’s forest

Reindeer:

Show transcript:

Welcome to Strange Animals Podcast. I’m your host, Kate Shaw.

After the glaciers retreated from Europe at the end of the last ice age, around 11,000 years ago, forests grew wherever there was enough soil to support a tree. As these new forests spread, they joined forests that had survived the glaciations. By the time ancient Romans were writing about the things they encountered while exploring western Europe, around 2,000 years ago, the forest stretched across much of the continent and was considered a wild, dangerous place. They called it the Hercynian [her-SIN-ian] forest and it was supposed to be full of peculiar animals.

An account of the forest appears in the book Commentarii del Bello Gallico, the first edition of which was published just over 2,000 years ago in 49 BCE. It was written by Julius Caesar, or at least he was involved in it even if he didn’t actually write it personally, since it was about his military campaigns. In one section of the book he discusses the Hercynian forest and three remarkable animals that lived in it.

The first was called the uri, which were supposed to look like bulls but were almost the size of elephants, and were incredibly aggressive. This is probably the same animal often called the aurochs, which we talked about in episode 58. The aurochs was probably the wild ancestor of the domesticated cow and could stand almost six feet tall at the shoulder, or 1.8 meters. It had already gone extinct in most places 500 years before Caesar wrote his book, but it still lived in parts of Europe.

The second animal is a lot harder to identify. The alces looked like a big goat that either didn’t have horns or had very short ones, but its legs didn’t have joints. If an alces fell over, it couldn’t get up again. Caesar explained that hunters used this to their advantage. Because the alces couldn’t lie down at night, it would sleep by propping itself against a tree. The hunters would note which tree an alces preferred, and during the day they’d cut a notch in the trunk. When the alces leaned against it at night to sleep, the tree would topple over, taking the animal with it. The waiting hunters would then be able to just stroll up and kill the alces.

Naturally, this story doesn’t make any sense. All tetrapods have jointed legs. But the story of an animal without joints in its legs crops up in various stories from around this time, including the part where hunters cut a notch in a tree trunk to knock the animal over. It’s a story once told about the elephant and the Eurasian elk, among others, and the alces was probably based on the Eurasian elk. That’s the Eurasian population of the animal called the moose in North America. Because the story specifies that the alces either didn’t have horns or had very small ones, it’s possible that Caesar based his story on the female elk, which doesn’t have antlers.

Incidentally, we’re so certain that the alces was the same animal as the Eurasian elk that its scientific name is actually Alces alces.

Finally, the Hercynian deer was likewise large and had a single horn. A translation of the passage states: “There is an ox with the shape of a deer; projecting out of its forehead, in the middle, between the ears, is a single horn, which is both longer and more upright than those horns we are used to seeing.” Other sources that talk about this animal also say that the horn branched at the end, and Caesar notes that both males and females had these horns.

This gives us a big clue as to what animal might have inspired the account. Unlike most deer, both male and female reindeer have antlers. Unlike caribou, the North American reindeer species, the European reindeer often has relatively long and straight main shafts on its antlers that then enlarge at the end in what’s called a palmate structure. That basically means it’s shaped like a hand.

But reindeer have two antlers, not one. It’s possible that the story of the Hercynian deer was inspired by the unicorn legend, which was based on the rhinoceros. It might also have been inspired by Caesar sighting a reindeer that had dropped one antler but hadn’t yet lost the other one, since like other deer, reindeer shed their antlers and regrow them every year.

The reason Caesar wrote about the animals of the Hercynian forest in the first place was to underline how strange and uncivilized the people living in the area were. The people in question are what today we would call Germans. Caesar stresses that all these animals are ones never seen anywhere else, and he might easily have added exotic details from other fabulous animals to make these animals seem extra weird.

These days most of the Hercynian forest is long gone, chopped down for people to turn into farmland and towns. While the Eurasian elk and the reindeer are still around, they no longer live as far south as Germany. The last aurochs went extinct in 1627 in Poland. But the German people are doing just fine, and they’re a lot more civilized than Caesar gave them credit for 2,000 years ago.

Thanks for your support, and thanks for listening!